Totoka: āhuatanga, te hanga, kiato, me tauira

karanga Mārō taua matū e he me ahei o te hanga i te tinana i te rōrahi. O wai, me hau, kua kitea e ratou i to ratou āhua. pupuri nga totoka te āhua o te tinana e tika ana ki te meka e kore e taea e ki te neke noa ratou korakora. rerekē ratou i roto i to ratou ukanga, te kānapanapa, te kawe ia hiko, me te tae. E hoki ratou i te tahi atu āhuatanga. Hei tauira, rewa te nuinga o enei matū e i roto i whakawera, whiwhi i te āhua whakahiato wai. Etahi o ratou ka hana gasified tonu (sublimed). Ko reira te hunga e wahia iho ki ētahi atu matū hoki.

Ngā momo o totoka

Kua wehea totoka katoa ki e rua ngā rōpū.

1. Amorphous, i roto i nei e whakaritea te matūriki takitahi matapōkeretia. I roto i te mau parau te tahi atu, e kore ratou e whai i te mārama (motuhake) hanganga. Ka taea te rewa ēnei totoka i roto i te tetahi wā pāmahana tikanga. Ko te noa te nuinga o enei ngā karaihe, me te teriuma.
2. Crystal, i roto i te tahuri e roherohea ki 4 momo: ngota, rāpoi, katote, te konganuku. Kei te tū te matūriki anake i roto i te tauira motuhake, ara i roto i te wini whakakahokaho karaihe. Ko tōna āhuahanga i roto i ngā matū rerekē e taea rerekē nui.

taea totoka tioata i runga i amorphous i roto i o ratou tau.

Ngā momo o totoka tioata

I roto i ngā matū totoka katoa i te hanganga, tioata. rerekē ratou i roto i to ratou hanganga. I roto i tona tioata i roto i kōpuku wini ngā matūriki, me ngā matū. Ko reira i roto i te runga ki a ratou, a ka ka e ratou o ratou ingoa. He āhuatanga motuhake hoki reira ia momo:

• Te karaihe ripekapeka matūriki totoka ngota e hono ana e te here kotuari. Kei te kitea te reira e tona kaha. Nā ki tenei, taua matū i te nui ira whakakoero me te koropupu. Tenei momo ngā kiripaka me te taimana.
• I roto i te wini whakakahokaho karaihe o te here rāpoi i waenganui i nga matūriki āhuatanga e tona ngoikore. Kei te āhuatanga e noho pai o te rewa, me te koropupu matū o tenei momo. E āhuatanga ratou i te pähekeheke, e tika ana ki nei i te tetahi kakara. Enei totoka he huka, te huka. Motion o ngā rāpoi ngota i roto i totoka o tenei momo e āhuatanga e ratou mahi.
• Ko te ripekapeka karaihe katote i roto i te kōpuku hohoko matūriki rātou i ako pai me te tōraro. E puritia ratou e attraction hiko. vai tēnei momo ripekapeka i roto i kawakore, tai, waikura taketake. He ngāwari wairewa i roto i te wai maha matū o tenei momo. Nā ki kaha rawa te here i waenganui i te katote e whakangutungutu. Tata ki te katoa o ratou he koreami, mai e āhuatanga ratou i te pähekeheke-kore. Matū ki te wini whakakahokaho katote taea ki te whakahaere o nāianei hiko, pera i roto i to ratou hanganga kahore irahiko noa. He tauira angamaheni o te katote totoka - tote. homai he mea ripekapeka karaihe taua he pakarukaru reira. Ko e tika ana ki te meka e taea meinga tetahi o tona neke katote ope whakarihariha tenei.
• Ko te wini whakakahokaho konganuku karaihe anake e kitea i roto i te kōpuku, pai whakatupato matū katote. I waenganui ia ratou i reira he irahiko noa i roto i nei haere pai pūngao waiariki, me te hiko. Ko te aha tetahi konganuku rerekē āhuatanga pērā i kawe ia.

ariā General o totoka

Totoka me matū - te reira ngā te mea ano. Ēnei ngā tuku ki tetahi o nga āhua 4 o te whakawhāititanga. Totoka i te puka pūmau me te huru o te nekehanga waiariki o ngota. hanga te whakamutunga oscillations iti e tata ana te tūranga taurite. Manga o te pūtaiao e pā ana ki te ako o te hanganga me te hanganga ā-, tuku ki rite ahupūngao mārō-kāwanatanga. He atu wāhi nui o te matauranga whai wāhi i roto i te taua matū. Te huri i te āhua e awenga o waho, me te nekehanga i huaina rehe o tinana deformable.

Nā ki te āhuatanga rerekē o totoka, kua whakamahia ratou i roto i ngā whakaaro hangarau hanga e te tangata. Nuinga o ngā wā i te pūtake o to ratou whakamahi i ngā āhuatanga pērā i te pakeke, rōrahi, te papatipu, elasticity, plasticity, brittleness. Ka taea te whakamahi pūtaiao Modern me ētahi atu 'ulungaanga o totoka e taea te kitea anake i roto i te taiwhanga.

He aha te karaihe

Tioata - he tinana totoka whakanohoia i roto i te tetahi matūriki kia. Ia matū he ona ake hanganga. Ko tōna ngota hanga he tāpae e toru-dimensionally wā i huaina ripekapeka. matū Mārō i te hangarite hanganga rerekē. whakaaro kāwanatanga tioata Mārō te eu, no te mea e he nui iti o te pūngao moe.

Ko te nuinga o ngā rauemi totoka (tūturu) nui ngā o te maha nui o hāngai matapōkeretia purapura takitahi (crystallites). E huaina taua matū polycrystalline. Ēnei ngā alloys hangarau me konganuku, me te he rota o toka. ka karanga a Monocrystalline tūturu waihanga ranei tioata kotahi.

I roto i te e hanga e te nuinga o te tinana totoka pērā i te āhua o te wāhanga wai, tukuna ki te ngohe ranei otinga. I te tahi taime, e ahu mai ratou i te āhua haurehu waihā. huaina ana tēnei tukanga ko te whātioatanga. Ngā mihi ki te ahunga whakamua pūtaiao, me te hangarau o te tukanga māra (ariā) o ngā matū whakaputaina he tauine ahumahi. Te nuinga o nga tioata he āhua tūturu o te matarau auau. rerekē whānui ratou rahi. Hei tauira, kiripaka tūturu (toka karaihe) taea paunatia ake ki rau o kirokaramu, me taimana - ki runga ki te maha karamu.

I roto i te totoka amorphous, ko nga ngota i roto i te oscillation tonu a tawhio noa ngā kei matapōkeretia. rokiroki ratou etahi tikanga poto-whānui, engari kahore-whānui roa. Ko e tika ana ki te meka e kua whakaritea o ratou rāpoi i te tawhiti e taea te whakaritea ki to ratou rahi tenei. Ko te tino noa i roto i to tatou hi'oraa ora o tenei ko te āhua waiwai totoka. rauemi amorphous e maha i titiro rite te wai ki te pokey ore nui. Ko ētahi wā te wa o te whātioatanga kia nui e kore e i whakaaturia.

E hanga nga āhuatanga i runga o enei matū ahurei ratou. E whakaaro totoka amorphous iu no te mea e taea i runga i te wā e haere ki roto ki te āhua, tioata.

Rāpoi ngota, ngota, o nei Kei roto te totoka Kikī ki kiato tiketike. Ratou mau tonu whakaritea ratou tūranga whanaunga ki te faatura ki ētahi atu matūriki me e pupuri tahi i te pāhekoheko intermolecular. huaina te tawhiti i waenganui i te rāpoi ngota o te totoka i roto i te ahunga rerekē te te tawhā karaihe ripekapeka. Ko te hanganga o te taonga, me tona hangarite te tautuhi i te plurality o ngā āhuatanga pērā i irahiko ropu, wāhinga me tuku kōrero. A, no te kitea ki totoka ope feunga nui, kia enei mau huru atu iti iho ranei takahi. A, no te tenei totoka deformation wäriu Nireaha.

Ko te ngota o tinana totoka oscillate, i te mea e tika ana ki te kainga o te pūngao ngāwhā. Mai he iti ratou, anake e taea te kite ratou i raro i ngā āhuatanga taiwhanga. Ko te hanganga rāpoi o totoka te nuinga pā ona āhuatanga.

Ko te ako o totoka

Āhuatanga āhuatanga o enei rauemi, ako ratou kounga me te korakora nekehanga ngā tekiona o ahupūngao kāwanatanga totoka.

Hoki te ako whakamahia: hihinga irirangi, tātari hanganga te whakamahi i X-hihi, me te tahi atu tikanga. Na ako i te āhuatanga hangarau, tinana, me te waiariki o totoka. Te pakeke, te ahotea resistance, kurut kaha, wāhanga huringa Akoranga Materials. Reira te nuinga Inaki ki te ahupūngao o totoka. Tera atu ano tetahi pūtaiao hou nui. Hei ako ngā me te synthesizing matū hou tū matū kāwanatanga totoka.

āhuatanga totoka

nekehanga Pūāhua irahiko waho ngota mārō whakatau tokomaha o ona āhuatanga, hei tauira, electrically. E 5 ngā akomanga o taua tinana. E whakatakotoria ratou i runga i te momo o ngā ngota rānei:

• Ngota, āhuatanga taketake o e ko te kaha o te attraction hiko. Ko tōna āhuatanga: whakaata me te absorption o te marama i roto i te rohe pōkākā. I iti pāmahana, āhuatanga te here katote e kawe ia hiko iti. He tauira o te rauemi taua ko te tote konutai o te waikawa pūhaumāota (NaCl).
• kawea Irahiko i i te utu o te rua irahiko, e no ki ngota e rua. Kei te tahuri iho hoki tetahi hono taua ki: kotahi (kotahi), rua, me te, takitoru. Enei ingoa tohu te aroaro o takirua irahiko (1, 2, 3). E huaina rua, me te takitoru here taurea. He ko tetahi wehenga o te rōpū. Na, i runga i te tohatoha irahiko kiato o te here neke, me te nonpolar taratahi rānei. Ko te tuatahi i hanga e ngota rerekē, me te tuarua - rite. he āhua mārō pērā o mea, tauira o nei ko - he taimana (C) me te takawai (Si), āhuatanga e tona kiato. Te nuinga o tioata totoka ko te tika here kotuari.
• Metal i hanga e te whakakotahi i te irahiko honohono o ngota. Ka rite ki te hua, i reira te mea he kapua irahiko katoa ngā nei i raro i te mana o te ngaohiko hiko. i hanga here Metal te ka te ngota hononga roa. E e taea ki te koha irahiko ratou. He maha konganuku, pūhui matatini o tenei here i hanga e te āhua mārō o te mea. Tauira: konutai, konu, konumohe, parahi, te koura. pūhui Non-konganuku ko te whai ake: AlCr _2, Ca ₂ Cu, Cu ₅ Zn _8. Matū ki te hononga whakarewa (konganuku) e rere i roto i ngā āhuatanga ōkiko. kia waiho ratou wai (HG), ngohengohe (Na, K), rawa pakeke (W, NB).
• Rāpoi puta i roto i tioata e kua hanga e rāpoi motuhake o te mea. Kei te āhuatanga i te reira e te āputa i waenganui i ngā rāpoi ngota ki te kore irahiko kiato. He nui Force hono ngota i roto i enei tioata. I te taua rāpoi e ngā ratou ki tetahi ki tetahi attraction intermolecular ngoikore anake. Ko te aha e ngāwari whakangaromia nga hononga i waenganui i a ratou i te wera. hinga noa ake uaua nga hononga i waenganui i te ngā ngota. Kei te wehea here rāpoi ki te takotoranga, purara me te arataki. He tauira o te taonga totoka taua he mewaro.
• Hauwai, e puta i waenganui i te ngota pai polarised rāpoi ona ranei a tōraro polarised matūriki iti o te rāpoi ngota atu wahi ranei. Ka taea te pēnei ēnei whanaunga tio.

āhuatanga totoka

He aha ta tatou e matau i tenei ra? Kua roa Scientists i ako i te āhuatanga o ngā matū kāwanatanga totoka. A, no te kitea ki pāmahana, me te huri i te reira. huaina te whakawhiti o te inu tinana te rewa. huaina te huringa o mārō ki te āhua haurehu waihā te whāhau. Ki te whakaiti i te pāmahana puta whātioatanga Mārō. Ētahi matū i raro i te mana o te matao whakawhiti ki te wāhanga amorphous. huaina ana tēnei tukanga ko pūtaiao vitrification.

I roto i ngā whakawhitinga wāhanga taui te hanganga ā-o totoka. Ko te tikanga teitei riro te reira tuku iho te pāmahana te. I te pēhanga kōhauhau me te pāmahana T> 0 K tetahi taonga ngā i roto i te natura, tā. haumāmā anake, te whātioatanga o e te mea e tika ana ki te pēhanga o te 24 ATM, ko he okotahi ki tenei ture.

āhua Mārō homai reira he āhuatanga tinana rerekē. whakaahua ratou te whanonga motuhake o tinana i raro i te mana o etahi mara me ope. E wehea ēnei āhuatanga ki ngā rōpū. 3 Tohaina tikanga te rongo ōrite ki toru ngā momo o te pūngao (pūkaha, waiariki, hiko). Fakatatau ki te tīari ratou e toru ngā rōpū o ngā āhuatanga ōkiko o totoka:

• āhuatanga Mechanical e pā ana ki te ahotea me deformation o tinana. E ai ki enei paearu, e wehea nga totoka ki te rapa, rheological, kaha me te hangarau. Ko te toenga, ko te tinana te mau tonu tana āhua, engari e taea te puta ke te reira e te ope waho. I roto i tenei take kia mau ai ki o te deformation kirihou (view tuatahi kihai hoki), rapa (hoki ki te āhua taketake) ranei haamou (ina pirau te tetahi paepae / break). Faahou i teie mau tautooraa whakaahua moduli rapa. Mārō whakakeke kore anake kōpeketanga, totoro, engari te hünuku hoki, kopikopiko tonu me te piko. mārō kaha tinana ki te te tu atu te karanga o whakangaromia tona taonga.
• whakakitea waiariki i raro i te mana o ngā āpure waiariki. Ko tētahi o nga āhuatanga tino nui - ira whakakoero, i nei te tinana tahuri ki te āhua wai. Kei te kitea te reira i roto i totoka tioata. riro tinana amorphous wera moe o hononga, rite ratou whakawhiti ki te āhua wai, ka whakaarahia te pāmahana te āta. Ki runga ki pa tetahi wera tinana amorphous ngaro tona elasticity me riro plasticity. Tenei āhua tikanga te paetae o ratou pāmahana whakawhiti karaihe. A, no te puta whakawera deformation tinana mārō. Ano, i te reira maha faarahi. Te ine nui, te āhuatanga tenei huru e te tetahi tauwehe. pānga pāmahana tinana te āhuatanga aunoa pērā i flowability, plasticity, u, me te kaha.
• Hiko e pā ana ki te rongo ki totoka microparticles rerenga me ngaru hiko o te rigidity tiketike. Ko ētahi o ēnei tamataraa me ngā āhuatanga radiative.

hanganga pēne

whakarōpūtia nga totoka i me te hanganga pēne pera-ka karanga. Na, i roto ia ratou he he nunui:

• Conductors, te āhuatanga i roto i taua īnaki te kawe ia, me te honohono, here. Ko te kupu e taea te irahiko neke i waenganui i a ratou, whai i te pūngao iti. Hoki conductors He konganuku katoa. A, no te hanga e te nāianei hiko te ki te taua tinana rerekētanga pea (e tika ana ki te kaupapa noa o irahiko i waenga i nga ngā ki te raro, me te pūmanawa tiketike).
• Dielectrics, e kore ngā wāhi e īnaki. Ko te wā i waenganui i a ratou te mea nui ake i te 4 eV. Ki te whakahaere i ngā irahiko i te honohono, ki te rapu utu nui ropu pūngao kawenga. Ngā mihi ki enei āhuatanga dielectrics tata kore-conductive.
• Semiconductors, āhuatanga e te ngaro o te kawenga me te honohono, here. Ko te wā i waenganui i a ratou he iti atu i 4 eV. Hoki whakawhiti o irahiko i te honohono, ki te ropu āriponga titau iti pūngao i te dielectrics. Pure (melé me eigenfunctions) Semiconductors painga haere nāianei te.

nekehanga rāpoi i roto i te totoka meinga ratou āhuatanga hiko.

atu āhuatanga

E wehea totoka, me o ratou āhuatanga autō. E toru ngā rōpū:

• āhuatanga Diamagnetic e whakawhirinaki iti i runga i te pāmahana te āhua o te whakawhāititanga ranei.
• Paramagnetic, hua i te takotoranga o te irahiko kawenga me taime autō o te ngota. E ai Curie ratou susceptibility heke rite pāmahana. Ko te kupu, i 300 K ko reira 10 ^-5.
• He tinana autō ki te hanganga whakahau he tikanga roa-whānui o ngā ngota. I roto i te kōpuku o te wini whakakahokaho wā e whakaritea matūriki ki taime autō. Ēnei totoka me matū pinepine whakamahia i roto i ao rerekē o te mahi a te tangata.

Te rawa faingataa i roto i te āhua

He aha e ratou? totoka kiato nuinga whakatau ratou pakeke. I roto i nga tau tata nei, kua kitea kaipūtaiao rave rahi rauemi e titau ki hei "te tinana tino roa." Te nuinga totoka - fullerite reira (rāpoi karaihe ki te fullerene), i te mea e pā ana ki 1.5 wa maro atu i taimana. Kia aroha mai, Ko reira e wātea ana i tēnei wā anake i roto i ngā rahinga iti rawa.

Ki te rā, te taonga faingata'a, e muri kia te whakamahi i roto i te ahumahi - lonsdalite (hexagonal taimana). Ko 58% maro atu i taimana ia. Lonsdalite - whakarerekētanga allotropic o waro. Ko te tino rite ki te taimana tona ripekapeka karaihe. kei pūtau Lonsdaleite 4 ngota, engari te taimana - 8. O nga tioata nuitia whakamahia tenei ra ko te taimana faingataa.